A History of Modern Europe

PART ONE FOUNDATIONS Chapter 1 Medieval Legacies and Transforming Discoveries Medieval Continuities The Fragmentation of Europe At the Crossroads of Cultures The Structure of Society Feudalism A Subsistence Economy Religion and Popular Culture The Emergence of Early Modern Europe A Rising Population An Expanding Economy The Growth of Towns Municipal Liberties The Emergence of Sovereign States Developing State Structures Limits to State Authority Transforming Discoveries Gunpowder, Warfare, and Armies The Printing Press and the Power of the Printed Word Exploration and Conquest in the New World: The Origins of European Empire Conclusion Chapter 2 The Renaissance The City-States of the Italian Peninsula Thriving Economies Social Structure Renaissance Political Life Florence: Anatomy of a Renaissance City A Dynamic Culture The Rediscovery of Classical Learning From Scholasticism to Humanism The Renaissance and Religion The Renaissance Man and Woman Renaissance Art Architecture Patronage and the Arts Renaissance Artists Painting and Sculpture High Renaissance Style The End of the Renaissance Economic Decline Foreign Invasion Machiavelli The Decline of the City-States Impulses Elsewhere Chapter 3 The Two Reformations The Northern Renaissance Northern Art and Humanism Erasmus’s Humanistic Critique of the Church The Roots of the Reformation The Great Schism (1378–1417) Heretical and Spiritual Movements The Challenge of Conciliarism to Papal Authority Clerical Abuses and Indulgences Martin Luther Social Background of the Reformation in the German States Urban Centers of Reform The Process of Reform The Peasants’ Revolt The Spread of the Reformation Divisions within Christendom Charles V and the Protestants The Peace of Augsburg The Reformation in Switzerland and France Zwingli and Reform Radical Reformers Jean Calvin and Reform Calvinist Conversions The English Reformation Henry VIII and the Break with Rome After the Break with Rome The Catholic Reformation Retreat to Dogmatism Ignatius of Loyola and the Jesuits The Council of Trent Putting Its House in Order Culture during the Two Reformations Print Culture Lay Education and Reading Popular Rituals and Festivals The Role of Women The Baroque Style The Legacy of the Two Reformations Chapter 4 The Wars of Religion The Wars of Religion in Sixteenth-Century France A Strengthened Monarchy Economic Crisis French Calvinists and the Crisis of the French State Henry of Navarre Statemaking Louis XIII and the Origins of Absolute Rule The Thirty Years’ War (1618–1648) Factionalism in the Holy Roman Empire The Origins of the Thirty Years’ War Conflict in Bohemia The Expansion of the Conflict The Danish Period The Swedish Interlude The Armies of the Thirty Years’ War The Wars of Religion and Dynastic Struggles (1635–1648) The Treaty of Westphalia (1648) PART TWO STATEMAKING Chapter 5 The Rise of the Atlantic Economy: Spain and England Economic Expansion Increased Agricultural Productivity Expansion of Trade The Global Economy Price Revolution and Depression The Rise of Spain Centralization and the Spanish Monarchy The Spanish Economy The Expansion of the Spanish Empire The Age of Philip II The Rise of England The House of Tudor Religious Settlement and Conflict under Elizabeth I Elizabeth’s Statemaking Demographic and Economic Expansion English Society in the Tudor Period The Quest for Public Order The Elizabethan Theater An Emerging Empire of Trade The Decline of Spain The Dutch Revolt Economic Decline An Empire Spread Too Thin Conclusion Chapter 6 England and the Dutch Republic in the Seventeenth Century Conflicts in Stuart England Conflicts between James I and Parliament Religious Divisions Charles I and Parliament Clash The English Civil War Moving toward Conflict Taking Sides Oliver Cromwell and the New Model Army Divisions within Parliament Radicals Parliament’s Victory The Puritan Republic and Restoration The Glorious Revolution Stuart Religious Designs The “Protestant Wind” The Bill of Rights The Golden Age of the Dutch Republic The Structure of the Dutch State Expanding Economy Tolerance and Prosperity Seventeenth-Century Dutch Culture The Decline of the Dutch Republic Conclusion Chapter 7 The Age of Absolutism, 1650–1720 Theories of Absolutism Characterizing Absolute Rule Monarchs and Nobles Expanding State Structures Absolutism and Warfare Absolutism and Religion Monumentalism in Architecture and Art Absolutism in France The Fronde: Taming “Overmighty Subjects” Mercantilism under Louis XIV The Absolute Louis XIV Louis XIV at Versailles Louis XIV’s Persecution of Religious Minorities The Limits of French Absolutism The Balance of Power The Habsburg Monarchy The Rise of Prussia The Russian and Swedish Empires The Expansion of Muscovy The Rival Swedish Empire Peter the Great Turns Westward Louis XIV’s Dynastic Wars The Modern State PART THREE NEW CULTURAL AND POLITICAL HORIZON Chapter 8 The New Philosophy of Science Changing Views of the Universe Ancient and Medieval Science Copernicus Challenges the Aristotelian View of the Universe The Universal Laws of the Human Body Brahe and Kepler Explore the Heavens Francis Bacon and the Scientific Method Galileo and Science on Trial Descartes and Newton: Competing Theories of Scientific Knowledge Descartes and Deductive Reasoning The Newtonian Synthesis The Culture of Science The Diffusion of the Scientific Method The Uses of Science Science and Religion Consequences of the Scientific Revolution Chapter 9 Enlightened Thought and the Republic of Letters Enlightened Ideas Intellectual Influences on Enlightened Thought The Republic of Ideas Montesquieu Voltaire Diderot Rousseau The Diffusion and Expansion of the Enlightenment Religious Enthusiasm and Skepticism Expansion of the Cultural Base The Arts Music The Spread of Enlightened Ideas Enlightened Absolutism Reform of Jurisprudence Educational Reform Religious Toleration Frederick the Great Rural Reform Currents of the Late Enlightenment Enlightened Thought and Economic Freedom German Idealism The Enlightenment and Public Opinion Forbidden Publications and the Undermining of Authority Legacy of the Enlightenment Chapter 10 Eighteenth-Century Economic and Social Change The Social Order Nobles The British Landed Elite The Clergy The “Middling Sort” Peasants The Beginnings of the Industrial Revolution Stagnation and Growth in Agriculture Population Growth Manufacturing: Guilds and Domestic Industry Inventions Expanding British Economy Expanding Continental Economies Social Changes The Growth of Towns and Cities Social Movement within the Elite The Changing Condition of the Poor Social Control Protecting Property in Britain Subordination and Social Control A Century of Contrasts Chapter 11 Eighteenth-Century Dynastic Rivalries and Politics 386 The Eighteenth-Century State System Global Rivalries The Hanoverians and the Stuarts in Great Britain The Prussian-Austrian Dynastic Rivalry in Central Europe Conflicts between the Great Powers The War of the Austrian Succession The Seven Years’ War Armies and Their Tactics in the Eighteenth Century Navies Political Change in Great Britain Expanding Central Government in Britain The Role of the House of Commons The Development of Party Politics in the 1760s: Whigs and Tories The Rise of British Nationalism Challenges to Established Authority British Radicals American Revolutionaries The Parlements and the French Monarchy Other Movements for Reform Declining Power, Disappearing State: The Ottoman Empire and Poland The Decline of Ottoman Turkish Power in Europe The Partitions of Poland Conclusion PART FOUR REVOLUTIONARY EUROPE, 1789–1850 Chapter 12 The French Revolution The Old Regime in Crisis Long-Term Causes of the French Revolution The Financial Crisis The First Stages of the Revolution Convoking the Estates-General Storming of the Bastille The Great Fear and the Night of August 4 Consolidating the Revolution The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen “The Baker, the Baker’s Wife, and the Baker’s Little Boy” Reforming the Church and Clergy The Reforms of 1791 Resistance and Revolution The Flight to Varennes War and the Second Revolution Reactions to the French Revolution in Europe A Second Revolution Counter-Revolution The Terror The Final Stages of the Revolution Thermidor The Directory: Politics and Society Instability The Eighteenth Brumaire Perspectives on the French Revolution Europe an Responses to the Revolution Historians’ Views of the Revolution Chapter 13 Napoleon and Europe Napoleon’s Rise to Power The Young Bonaparte Napoleon and the Revolution Consolidation of Power Establishment of the Consulate The Concordat Napoleon’s Leadership Wars of Conquest and Empire The Corsican Warrior The Foundations of the French Empire Institutional Foundations: Imperial Centralization Legal Foundations: The Napoleonic Code Social Foundations: The Imperial Hierarchy The Tide Turns against Napoleon The Continental System The Peninsular War Stirrings of Nationalism in Napoleonic Europe Military Reforms in Prussia and Austria The Empire’s Decline and the Russian Invasion The Defeat of Napoleon Monarchical Restoration and Napoleon’s Return The Bourbon Restoration The 100 Days Napoleon’s Legacy Chapter 14 The Industrial Revolution Preconditions for Transformation Demographic Explosion The Expanding Agricultural Base Trains and Steamboats A Variety of National Industrial Experiences In the Vanguard: Britain’s Era of Mechanization Industrialization in France Industrialization in the German States Sparse Industrialization in Southern and Eastern Europe The Middle Classes Diversity of the Middle Classes The Entrepreneurial Ideal and Social Mobility Rising Professions Middle-Class Culture Marriage and Family Separate Spheres and the Cult of Domesticity A Culture of Comfort Education Religion The Ambiguities of Liberalism: Voluntarism versus State Intervention Impact of the Industrial Revolution Continuities on the Land Urbanization On the Move Industrial Work and Workers Gender and Family in the Industrial Age Child Labor The Laboring Poor Class Consciousness Workers’ Associations and Social Protest The Origins of European Socialism Utopian Socialists Practical Socialists Karl Marx and the Origins of “Scientific Socialism” Conclusion Chapter 15 Liberal Challenges to Restoration Europe The Post-Napoleonic Settlement The Treaty of Paris Diplomatic Maneuvering at the Congress of Vienna The Congress System The Concert of Europe Restoration Europe The Restoration of Monarchs, Nobles, and Clergy Conservative Ideology Liberalism Liberals and Politics Laissez-Faire Romanticism Conservative Origins Romantic Literature and Painting Romantic Music Stirrings of Revolt Liberal Revolts in Spain, Portugal, and Italy Stirrings in Germany Cracks in the Congress of Europe: The Greek Revolt The Decembrist Revolt in Russia France: The Bourbon Restoration and the Revolution of 1830 Other Liberal Assaults on the Old Order Independence for Belgium Liberal Successes in Switzerland Nationalist Dreams The Revolt in Poland Uprisings in Italy and Spain German Nationalism in Central Europe Crisis and Compromise in Great Britain Religious and Electoral Reform The Reform Bill of 1832 Chartism and the Repeal of the Corn Laws Conclusion Chapter 16 The Revolutions of 1848 Revolutionary Mobilization The February Revolution in France Revolution in the German States Revolution in Central Europe Revolution in the Italian States The Elusive Search for Revolutionary Consensus Crisis in France The Frankfurt Parliament Counter-Revolution Counter-Revolution in Habsburg Central Europe Prussian-Austrian Rivalry The Counter-Revolution in the Italian States The Agony of the French Second Republic The Legacy of 1848 PART FIVE THE AGE OF MASS POLITICS Chapter 17 The Era of National Unification The Political Unification of Italy Leadership for Italian Unification Alliances and Warfare to Further Italian Unification Garibaldi and the Liberation of Southern Italy Italy Unified Limits to Unification Italian Politics The Rise of Italian Nationalism The Unification of Germany William I, Bismarck, and the Resolution of the Constitutional Crisis Alliances and Warfare to Establish Prussian Leadership The North German Confederation The Franco-Prussian War and German Unification Nationalist versus Internationalist Movements William II and German Nationalism National Awakenings in the Habsburg Lands Diversity and Cohesion in the Habsburg Empire Repression of Nationalism in the Habsburg Empire Political Crisis and Foreign Policy Disasters Creation of the Dual Monarchy Ethnic Tensions and Nationalist Movements in the Dual Monarchy Conclusion Chapter 18 The Dominant Powers in the Age of Liberalism: Parliamentary Britain, Tsarist Russia, and Republican France Victorian Britain The Victorian Consensus The Crimean War The Liberal Era of Victorian Politics The Reform Bill of 1867 Other Victorian Reforms Mass Politics Come to Britain Irish Home Rule New Contours in British Political Life Tsarist Russia Stirrings of Reform in Russia The Emancipation of the Serfs The Expansion of the Russian Empire Nihilists and Populists Alexander III’s Empire Unrest, Reform, and Revolution Lenin and the Bolsheviks The Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905) The Revolution of 1905 France: Second Empire and Third Republic The Authoritarian Empire Economic Growth The “Liberal Empire” The Franco-Prussian War and the Siege of Paris The Paris Commune Republican France Monarchists and Republicans The Third Republic General Boulanger and Captain Dreyfus The Radical Republic Conclusion Chapter 19 Rapid Industrialization and Its Challenges, 1870–1914 The Second Industrial Revolution New Technology and Scientific Discoveries The Electric and Chemical Revolutions Regional Variations Travel and Communications Further Scientific Discoveries: “A Boundless Future” and Its Uncertainties Social Change Demographic Boom Improving Standards of Living Migration and Emigration The Changing World of Work Industrialization and the Working-Class Family Teeming Cities Social Mobility Cultural Changes: Education and Religion Education The Decline of Religious Practice The Consumer Explosion Leisure in the Belle Époque Sports in Mass Society Conclusion Chapter 20 Political and Cultural Responses to a Rapidly Changing World State Social Reform The Trade Union Movement Socialists Christian Socialism The Anarchists Syndicalists The Quest for Women’s Rights Cultural Ferment Realism Impressionism Social Theorists’ Analyses of Industrial Society Nietzsche’s Embrace of the Irrational Freud and the Study of the Irrational Avant-Garde Artists and Writers and the Rapid Pace of Modern Life The Avant-Garde’s Break with Rationalism Conclusion Chapter 21 The Age of Europe an Imperialism From Colonialism to Imperialism The “New Imperialism” and the Scramble for Africa British and French Imperial Rivalry Germany and Italy Join the Race Standoff in the Sudan: The Fashoda Affair The British in South Africa and the Boer War The Europe an Powers in Asia India, Southeast Asia, and China Japan and China: Contrasting Experiences The United States in Asia Domination of Indigenous Peoples Social Darwinism Technological Domination and Indigenous Subversion Imperial Economies Colonial Administrations Assessing the Goals of Europe an Imperialism The “Civilizing Mission” The Economic Rationale Imperialism and Nationalism Conclusion PART SIX CATACLYSM Chapter 22 The Great War Entangling Alliances Irreconcilable Hatreds The Alliance System Germany and Austria-Hungary against Russia Germany Encircled: Russia and France Ally Anglo-German Rivalry British-French Rapprochement The First Moroccan Crisis (1905) The Europe of Two Armed Camps, 1905–1914 The Balkan Tinderbox Instability in Turkey The Bosnian Crisis of 1908 The Second Moroccan Crisis (1911) The Balkan Wars The Final Crisis Assassination in Sarajevo The Ultimatum The Schlieffen Plan “A Jolly Little War” The Outbreak of War Opening Hostilities The Changing Nature of War Trench Warfare War in the Air and on the Seas The Home Front The War Rages On The Eastern Front The War in the Middle East, Africa, and the Far East The Western Front Futility and Stalemate Soldiers and Civilians The Final Stages of the War The United States Enters the War Russia Withdraws from the War Offensives and Mutinies The German Spring Offensive The Fourteen Points and Peace The Impact of the War Conclusion Chapter 23 Revolutionary Russia and the Soviet Union War and Revolution Russia at War The February Revolution The Provisional Government and the Soviet The Army The Revolution Spreads Lenin’s Return The July Days The Kornilov Affair The October Revolution The Bolsheviks Seize Power The Peace of Brest-Litovsk Civil War The Soviet Union Democratic Centralism The New Economic Policy Chapter 24 The Elusive Search for Stability in the 1920s The End of the War Revolution in Germany and Hungary The Treaty of Versailles Settlements in Eastern Europe National and Ethnic Challenges The National Question and the Successor States Colonial and National Questions Economic and Social Instability Social Turmoil The Left and the Origins of the Welfare State Political Instability Germany’s Fragile Weimar Republic The Established Democracies: Britain and France Artists and Intellectuals in the Waste Land Chapter 25 The Europe of Economic Depression and Dictatorship Economies in Crisis The Great Depression Gradual Europe an Economic Revival The Dynamics of Fascism Mussolini and Fascism in Italy Hitler and the Rise of the Nazis in Germany Right-Wing Authoritarian Movements in Eastern Europe Fascism in Austria The Popular Front in France against the Far Right Fascism in the Low Countries and Britain The Third Reich The Collapse of the Weimar Republic The Nazi State Hitler’s New Reich and the Jews Hitler’s Foreign Policy The Führer and the Duce Remilitarization and Rearmament The Soviet Union under Stalin Five-Year Plans Soviet Culture “Darkness at Noon”: Stalin’s Purges The Spanish Civil War Social and Political Instability The Struggle between Loyalists and Nationalists Conclusion Chapter 26 World War II The Coming of World War II The Axis German Aggression and British and French Appeasement The Unholy Alliance The War in Europe Begins The German Invasion of Poland The “Phony War” The War in the Frozen North The Fall of France The Battle of Britain A Global War Total War Hitler’s Allies The German Invasion of Russia Japan’s Attack on the United States Hitler’s Europe The Nazi “New European Order” The “Final Solution” Collaboration Resistance Against Hitler in Germany The Tide Turns Germany on the Defensive The War in North Africa Hitler’s Russian Disaster The Allied Invasion of Italy The Big Three The D-Day Invasion of France Allied Victory Victory in Europe The Defeat of Japan Conclusion PART SEVEN EUROPE IN THE POST-WAR ERA Chapter 27 Rebuilding Divided Europe In the Wake of Devastation The Potsdam Conference The United Nations and Cold War Alliances Confronting Turmoil and Collaborators Economic Recovery and Prosperity, the Welfare State, and European Economic Cooperation Economic Cooperation The Post-War Baby Boom The Green Revolution Welfare States Politics in the West in the Post-War Era Political Realignments Divided Germany Eastern Europe under the Soviet Shadow The Soviet Union and Its Satellites in the Post-War Era Changing Contours of Life Intellectual Currents in the Post-War Era Advances for Women Catholicism in Modern Europe An Urban World Living Better Oil and the Global Economy Conclusion Chapter 28 The Cold War and the End of European Empires Cold War The Korean War (1950–1953) Stirrings in Eastern Europe Soviet–U.S. Tensions Sino-Soviet Rivalry The Brezhnev Era Nuclear Weapons and Superpower Tensions Decolonization Decolonization in South and Southeast Asia Britain and the Middle East The Suez Canal Crisis French Decolonization Decolonization in Sub-Saharan Africa Conclusion Chapter 29 Transitions to Democracy and the Collapse of Communism Politics in a Changing Western World Student Protests Challenge Gaullist France Shifts in Western Europe an Politics after 1968 The Transition to Democracy in Southern Europe Religious and Ethnic Conflicts The Fall of Communism Resistance to Soviet Domination The Gorbachev Era Transition to Parliamentary Government in Poland and Hungary The Collapse of the Berlin Wall and of East German Communism The “Velvet Revolution” in Czechoslovakia Revolutions in Bulgaria, Romania, and Albania The Collapse of the Soviet Union The Disintegration of Yugoslavia Challenges in the Post-Communist World Conclusion Chapter 30 Global Challenges: “Fortress Europe,” European Cooperation, and the Uncertainties of a New Age Immigration to Europe European Community, European Union Opposition to Globalization The Threat of Terrorism A United States Empire? European Responses to U.S. Policy Conclusion

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